Date

Parties

Involved

Basis of

Conflict

Violent Conflict or In the Context of Violence?

Description

Sources

3000 BC

Ea, Noah

Religious account

Yes

Ancient Sumerian legend recounts the deeds of the deity Ea, who punished humanity for its sins by inflicting the Earth with a six-day storm. The Sumerian myth parallels the Biblical account of Noah and the deluge, although some details differ.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

2500 BC

Lagash, Umma

Military tool

Yes

Lagash-Umma Border Dispute-The dispute over the “Gu’edena” (edge of paradise) region begins. Urlama, King of Lagash from 2450 to 2400 B.C., diverts water from this region to boundary canals, drying up boundary ditches to deprive Umma of water. His son Il cuts off the water supply to Girsu, a city in Umma.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

1790 BC

Hammurabi

Political tool

No

Code of Hammurabi for the State of Sumer - Hammurabi lists several laws pertaining to irrigation that address negligence of irrigation systems and water theft.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

1720-1684 BC

Abi-Eshuh, Iluma-Ilum

Military tool

Yes

Abi-Eshuh v. Iluma-Ilum- A grandson of Hammurabi, Abish or Abi-Eshuh, dams the Tigris to prevent the retreat of rebels lead by Iluma-Ilum, who declared the independence of Babylon. This failed attempt marks the decline of the Sumerians who had reached their apex under Hammurabi.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

circa 1300BC      

Sisra, Barak, God 

Religious account, Military Tool

Yes

This is an Old Testament account of the defeat of Sisera and his "nine hundred chariots of iron" by the unmounted army of Barak on the fabled Plains of Esdraelon.  God sends heavy rainfall in the mountains, and the Kishon River overflows the plain and immobilizes or destroys Sisera's technologically superior forces ("...the earth trembled, and the heavens dropped, and the clouds also dropped water," Judges 5:4; "...The river of Kishon swept them away, that ancient river, the river Kishon," Judges 5:21).

New Scofield Reference Bible, KJV; Judges 4:7-15 and Judges 5:4-22.

1200 BC

Moses, Egypt

Military tool, Religious account

Yes

Parting of the Red Sea- When Moses and the retreating Jews find themselves trapped between the Pharoah’s army and the Red Sea, Moses miraculously parts the waters of the Red Sea, allowing his followers to escape. The waters close behind them and cut off the Egyptians.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

720-705 BC

Assyria, Armenia

Military tool

Yes

After a successful campaign against the Halidians of Armenia, Sargon II of Assyria destroys their intricate irrigation network and floods their land.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

705-682 BC

Sennacherib, Babylon

Military weapon /target

Yes

In quelling rebellious Assyrians in 695 B.C., Sennacherib razes Babylon and diverts one of the principal irrigation canals so that its waters wash over the ruins.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

Unknown

Sennacherib, Jerusalem

Military tool

Yes

As recounted in Chronicles 32.3, Hezekiah digs into a well outside the walls of Jerusalem and uses a conduit to bring in water. Preparing for a possible siege by Sennacherib, he cuts off water supplies outside of the city walls, and Jerusalem survives the attack.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

681-699 BC

Assyria, Tyre

Military tool, Religious account

Yes

Esarhaddon, an Assyrian, refers to an earlier period when gods, angered by insolent mortals, created destructive floods. According to inscriptions recorded during his reign, Esarhaddon besieges Tyre, cutting off food and water.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

669-626 BC

Assyria, Arabia, Elam

Military tool, Military target

Yes

Assurbanipal’s inscriptions also refer to a siege against Tyre, although scholars attribute it to Esarhaddon. In campaigns against both Arabia and Elam in 645 B.C., Assurbanipal, son of Esarhaddon, dries up wells to deprive Elamite troops. He also guards wells from Arabian fugitives in an earlier Arabian war. On his return from victorious battle against Elam, Assurbanipal floods the city of Sapibel, and ally of Elam. According to inscriptions, he dams the Ulai River with the bodies of dead Elamite soldiers and deprives dead Elamite kinds of their food and water offerings.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

612 BC

Egypt, Persia, Babylon, Assyria

Military tool

Yes

A coalition of Egyptian, Median (Persian), and Babylonian forces attacks and destroys Ninevah, the capital of Assyria. Nebuchadnezzar’s father, Nebopolassar, leads the Babylonians. The converging armies divert the Khosr River to create a flood, which allows them to elevate their siege engines on rafts.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

605-562 BC

Babylon

Military tool

No

Nebuchadnezzar builds immense walls around Babylon, using the Euphrates and canals as defensive moats surrounding the inner castle.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

558-528 BC

Babylon

Military tool

Yes

On his way from Sardis to defeat Nabonidus at Babylon, Cyrus faces a powerful tributary of the Tigris, probably the Diyalah. According to Herodotus’ account, the river drowns his royal white horse and presents a formidable obstacle to his march. Cyrus, angered by the “insolence” of the river, halts his army and orders them to cut 360 canals to divert the river’s flow. Other historians argue the Cyrus needed the water to maintain his troops on their southward journey, while another asserts that the construction was an attempt to win the confidence of the locals.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

539 BC

Babylon

Military tool

Yes

According to Herodotus, Cyrus invades Babylon by diverting the Euphrates above the city and marching troops along the dry riverbed. This popular account describes a midnight attack that coincided with a Babylonian feast.

Hatami and Gleick 1994

355-323 BC

Babylon

Military tool

Yes

Returning from the razing of Persepolis, Alexander proceeds to India. After the Indian campaigns, he heads back to Babylon via the Persian Gulf and the Tigris, where he tears down defensive weirs that the Persians had constructed along the river. Arrian describes Alexander’s disdain for the Persians’ attempt to block navigation, which he saw as “unbecoming to men who are victorious in battle.”

Hatami and Gleick 1994

1503

Florence and Pisa warring states.

Military tool

Yes

Leonardo da Vinci and Machievelli plan to divert Arno River away from Pisa during conflict between Pisa and Florence.

Honan 1996

1573-74

Holland and Spain

Military tool

Yes

In 1573 at the beginning of the eighty years war against Spain, the Dutch flooded the land to break the siege of Spanish troops on the town Alkmaar. The same defense was used to protect Lieden in 1574. This strategy became known as the Dutch Water Line and was used frequently for defense in later years.

Dutch Water Line 2002

1642

China; Ming Dynasty

Military tool

Yes

The Huang He's dikes breached for military purposes. In 1642, "toward the end of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), General Gao Mingheng used the tactic near Kaifeng in an attempt to suppress a peasant uprising."

Hillel 1991

1672

French, Dutch

Military tool

Yes

Louis XIV starts the third of the Dutch Wars in 1672, in which the French overran the Netherlands. In defense, the Dutch opened their dikes and flooded the country, creating a watery barrier that was virtually impenetrable.

Columbia 2000

1748

United States

Development dispute

Yes

Mar 28 - Ferry house on Brooklyn shore of East River burns down. New Yorkers accuse Brooklynites of having set the fire as revenge for unfair East River water rights.

MCNY n.d.

1777

United States

Military tool

Yes

British and Hessians attacked the water system of New York “that the enemy wantonly destroyed the New York water works” during the War for Independence.

Thatcher 1827

1841

Canada

Development dispute, terrorism

Yes

A reservoir in Ops Township, Upper Canada (now Ontario) was destroyed by neighbors who considered it a hazard to health.

Forkey 1998

1844

United States

Development dispute, terrorism

Yes

A reservoir in Mercer County, Ohio was destroyed by a mob that considered it a hazard to health.

Scheiber 1969

1850s

United States

Development dispute

Yes

Attack on a New Hampshire dam that impounded water for factories downstream by local residents unhappy over its effect on water levels.

Steinberg 1990

1853-1861

United States

Development dispute, terrorism

Yes

Repeated destruction of the banks and reservoirs of the Wabash and Erie Canal in southern Indiana by mobs regarding it as a health hazard.

Fatout 1972, Fickle 1983

1870s

China

Development dispute

No

Local construction and government removal (twice) of an unauthorized dam in Hubei, China.

Rowe 1988

1870s to 1881

United States

Development dispute

Yes

Recurrent friction and eventual violent conflict over water rights in the vicinity of Tularosa, New Mexico involving villagers, ranchers, and farmers.

Rasch 1968

1887

United States

Development dispute, terrorism

Yes

Dynamiting of a canal reservoir in Paulding County, Ohio by a mob regarding it as a health hazard. State Militia called out to restore order.

Walters 1948

1990

Canada

Development dispute

Yes

Partly successful attempt to destroy a lock on the Welland Canal in Ontario, Canada either by Fenians protesting English Policy in Ireland or by agents of Buffalo, NY grain handlers unhappy at the diversion of trade through the canal.

Styran and Taylor 2001

1908-09

United States

Development dispute

Yes

Violence, including a murder, directed against agents of a land company that claimed title to Reelfoot Lake in northwestern Tennessee who attempted to levy charges for fish taken and threatened to drain the lake for agriculture.

Vanderwood 1969

1863

United States

Civil War

Military tool

Yes

General U.S. Grant, during the Civil War campaign against Vicksburg, cut levees in the battle against the Confederates.

Grant1885, Barry 1997

1898

Egypt; France; Britain

Military and political tool, Control of water resources

Military maneuvers

Military conflict nearly ensues between Britain and France in 1898 when a French expedition attempted to gain control of the headwaters of the White Nile. While the parties ultimately negotiates a settlement of the dispute, the incident has been characterized as having "dramatized Egypt's vulnerable dependence on the Nile, and fixed the attitude of Egyptian policy-makers ever since.”

Moorhead 1960

1907-

1913

Owens Valley, Los Angeles, California

Political tool, Control of water resources, Terrorism, and Development dispute

Yes

The Los Angeles Valley aqueduct/pipeline suffers repeated bombings in an effort to prevent diversions of water from the Owens Valley to Los Angeles.

Reisner 1986, 1993

1915

German Southwest Africa

Military tool

Yes

Union of South African troops capture Windhoek, capital of German Southwest Africa. (May.) Retreating German troops poison wells – “a violation of the Hague convention.”

Daniel 1995

1935

California, Arizona

Political tool, development dispute

Military maneuvers

Arizona calls out the National Guard and militia units to the border with California to protest the construction of Parker Dam and diversions from the Colorado River; dispute ultimately is settled in court.

Reisner 1986, 1993

1938

China and Japan

Military tool, Military target

Yes

Chiang Kai-shek orders the destruction of flood-control dikes of the Huayuankou section of the Huang He (Yellow) river to flood areas threatened by the Japanese army. West of Kaifeng dikes are destroyed with dynamite, spilling water across the flat plain. The flood destroyed part of the invading army and its heavy equipment was mired in thick mud, though Wuhan, the headquarters of the Nationalist government was taken in October. The waters flooded an area variously estimated as between 3,000 and 50,000 square kilometers, and killed Chinese estimated in numbers between “tens of thousands” and “one million.”

Hillel 1991, Yang Lang 1989, 1994

1939-1942

Japan, China

Military target, Military tool

Yes

Japanese chemical and biological weapons activities reportedly include tests by “Unit 731” against military and civilian targets by lacing water wells and reservoirs with typhoid and other pathogens.

Harris 1994

1940-1945

Multiple parties

Military target

Yes

Hydroelectric dams routinely bombed as strategic targets during World War II.

Gleick 1993

1943

Britain, Germany

Military target

Yes

British Royal Air Force bombed dams on the Möhne, Sorpe, and Eder Rivers, Germany (May 16, 17). Möhne Dam breech killed 1,200, destroyed all downstream dams for 50 km. The flood that occurred after breaking the Eder dam reached a peak discharge of 8500 m³/s, which is nine times higher than the highest flood observed. Many houses and bridges were destroyed. 68 were killed.

Kirschner 1949, Semann 1950

1944

Germany, Italy, Britain, United States

Military tool

Yes

German forces used waters from the Isoletta Dam (Liri River) in January and February to successfully destroy British assault forces crossing the Garigliano River (downstream of Liri River). The German Army then dammed the Rapido River, flooding a valley occupied by the American Army.

Corps of Engineers 1953

1944

Germany, Italy, Britain, United States

Military tool

Yes

German Army flooded the Pontine Marches by destroying drainage pumps to contain the Anzio beachhead established by the Allied landings in 1944. Over 40 square miles of land were flooded; a 30-mile stretch of landing beaches was rendered unusable for amphibious support forces.

Corps of Engineers 1953

1944

Germany, Allied forces

Military tool

Yes

Germans flooded the Ay River, France (July) creating a lake two meters deep and several kilometers wide, slowing an advance on Saint Lo, a German communications center in Normandy.

Corps of Engineers 1953

1944

Germany, Allied forces

Military tool

Yes

Germans flooded the Ill River Valley during the Battle of the Bulge (winter 1944-45) creating a lake 16 kilometers long, 3-6 kilometers wide, and 1-2 meters deep, greatly delaying the American Army’s advance toward the Rhine.

Corps of Engineers 1953

1947 onwards

Bangladesh, India

Development disputes, Control of water resources

No

Partition divides the Ganges River between Bangladesh and India; construction of the Farakka barrage by India, beginning in 1962, increases tension; short-term agreements settle dispute in 1977-82, 1982-84, and 1985-88, and thirty-year treaty is signed in 1996.

Butts 1997, Samson & Charrier 1997

1947-1960s

India, Pakistan

Development disputes, Control of water resources, and Political tool

No

Partition leaves Indus basin divided between India and Pakistan; disputes over irrigation water ensue, during which India stems flow of water into irrigation canals in Pakistan; Indus Waters Agreement reached in 1960 after 12 years of World Bank-led negotiations.

Bingham et al. 1994, Wolf 1997

1948

Arabs, Israelis

Military tool

Yes

Arab forces cut of West Jerusalem’s water supply in first Arab-Israeli war.

Wolf 1995, 1997

1950s

Korea, United States, others

Military target

Yes

Centralized dams on the Yalu River serving North Korea and China are attacked during Korean War.

Gleick 1993

1951

Korea, United Nations

Military tool and Military target

Yes

North Korea released flood waves from the Hwachon Dam damaging floating bridges operated by UN troops in the Pukhan Valley. U.S. Navy plans were then sent to destroy spillway crest gates.

Corps of Engineers 1953

1951

Israel, Jordan, Syria

Political tool, Military tool, Development disputes

Yes

Jordan makes public its plans to irrigate the Jordan Valley by tapping the Yarmouk River; Israel responds by commencing drainage of the Huleh swamps located in the demilitarized zone between Israel and Syria; border skirmishes ensue between Israel and Syria.

Wolf 1997, Samson & Charrier 1997

1953

Israel, Jordan, Syria

Development dispute, Military target, Political tool

Yes

Israel begins construction of its National Water Carrier to transfer water from the north of the Sea of Galilee out of the Jordan basin to the Negev Desert for irrigation. Syrian military actions along the border and international disapproval lead Israel to move its intake to the Sea of Galilee.

Naff and Matson 1984, Samson & Charrier 1997

1958

Egypt, Sudan

Military tool, Political tool, Control of water resources

Yes

Egypt sends an unsuccessful military expedition into disputed territory amidst pending negotiations over the Nile waters, Sudanese general elections, and an Egyptian vote on Sudan-Egypt unification; Nile Water Treaty signed when pro-Egyptian government elected in Sudan.

Wolf 1997

1960s

North Vietnam, United States

Military target

Yes

Irrigation water supply systems in North Vietnam are bombed during Vietnam War. 661 sections of dikes damaged or destroyed.

IWTC 1967, Gleick 1993, Zemmali 1995

1962

Israel, Syria

Control of water resources

Yes

Israel destroys irrigation ditches in the lower Tarfiq in the demilitarized zone. Syria complains.

Naff and Matson 1984

1962 to 1967

Brazil; Paraguay

Military tool, Political tool, Control of water resources

Military maneuvers

Negotiations between Brazil and Paraguay over the development of the Paraná River are interrupted by a unilateral show of military force by Brazil in 1962, which invades the area and claims control over the Guaira Falls site. Military forces were withdrawn in 1967 following an agreement for a joint commission to examine development in the region.

Murphy and Sabadell 1986

1963-1964

Ethiopia, Somalia

Development dispute, Military tool, Political tool

Yes

Creation of boundaries in 1948 leaves Somali nomads under Ethiopian rule; border skirmishes occur over disputed territory in Ogaden desert where critical water and oil resources are located; cease-fire is negotiated only after several hundred are killed.

Wolf 1997

1964

Cuba, United States

Military weapon

No

On February 6, 1964, the Cuban government ordered the water supply to the U.S. Naval Base at Guantanamo Bay cut off.

Guantanamo Bay Gazette. 1964.

1964

Israel, Syria

Military target, Control of water resources

Yes

Headwaters of the Dan River on the Jordan River are bombed at Tell El-Qadi in a dispute about sovereignty over the source of the Dan.

Naff and Matson 1984

1965

Zambia, Rhodesia, Great Britain

Military target

No

President Kenneth Kaunda calls on British government to send troops to Kariba Dam to protect it from possible saboteurs from Rhodesian government.

Chenje 2001

1965

Israel, Palestinians

Terrorism

Yes

First attack ever by the Palestinian National Liberation Movement Al-Fatah is on the diversion pumps for the Israeli National Water Carrier. Attack fails.

Naff and Matson 1984, Dolatyar 1995

1965-1966

Israel, Syria

Military tool, Political tool, Control of water resources, Development dispute

Yes

Fire is exchanged over “all-Arab” plan to divert the Jordan River headwaters (Hasbani and Banias) and presumably preempt Israeli National Water Carrier; Syria halts construction of its diversion in July 1966.

Wolf 1995, 1997

1966-1972

Vietnam, US

Military tool

Yes

U.S. tries cloud-seeding in Indochina to stop flow of materiel along Ho Chi Minh trail.

Plant 1995

1967

Israel, Syria

Military target and tool

Yes

Israel destroys the Arab diversion works on the Jordan River headwaters. During Arab-Israeli War Israel occupies Golan Heights, with Banias tributary to the Jordan; Israel occupies West Bank.

Gleick 1993, Wolf 1995, 1997, Wallenstein & Swain 1997

1969

Israel, Jordan

Military target and tool

Yes

Israel, suspicious that Jordan is overdiverting the Yarmouk, leads two raids to destroy the newly-built East Ghor Canal; secret negotiations, mediated by the US, lead to an agreement in 1970.

Samson & Charrier 1997

1970s

Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay

Control of water resources, Development dispute

No

Brazil and Paraguay announce plans to construct a dam at Itaipu on the Paraná River, causing Argentina concern about downstream environmental repercussions and the efficacy of their own planned dam project downstream. Argentina demands to be consulted during the planning of Itaipu but Brazil refuses. An agreement is reached in 1979 that provides for the construction of both Brazil and Paraguay’s dam at Itaipu and Argentina’s Yacyreta dam.

Wallenstein & Swain 1997

1972

North Vietnam

Military target

Yes

United States bombs dikes in the Red River delta, rivers, and canals during massive bombing campaign.

Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia 2000

1974

Iraq, Syria

Military target, Military tool, Political tool, Development dispute

Military maneuvers

Iraq threatens to bomb the al-Thawra dam in Syria and massed troops along the border, alleging that the dam had reduced the flow of Euphrates River water to Iraq.

Gleick 1994

1975

Iraq, Syria

Development dispute, Military tool, Political tool

Military maneuvers

As upstream dams are filled during a low-flow year on the Euphrates, Iraqis claim that flow reaching its territory is “intolerable” and asks the Arab League to intervene. Syrians claim they are receiving less than half the river’s normal flow and pull out of an Arab League technical committee formed to mediate the conflict. In May Syria closes its airspace to Iraqi flights and both Syrian and Iraq reportedly transfer troops to their mutual border. Saudi Arabia successfully mediates the conflict.

Gleick 1993, 1994, Wolf 1997

1975

Angola, South Africa

Military control of water resources

Yes

South African troops move into Angola to occupy and defend the Ruacana hydropower complex, including the Gové Dam on the Kunene River. Goal is to take possession of and defend the water resources of southwestern Africa and Namibia.

Meissner 2000

1978-onwards

Egypt, Ethiopia

Development dispute, Political tool

No

Long standing tensions over the Nile, especially the Blue Nile, originating in Ethiopia. Ethiopia’s proposed construction of dams on the headwaters of the Blue Nile leads Egypt to repeatedly declare the vital importance of water. "The only matter that could take Egypt to war again is water” (Anwar Sadat-1979). "The next war in our region will be over the waters of the Nile, not politics” (Boutrous Ghali-1988).

Gleick 1991, 1994

1978-1984

Sudan

Development dispute, Military target, Terrorism

Yes

Demonstrations in Juba, Sudan in 1978 opposing the construction of the Jonglei Canal led to the deaths of two students. Construction of the Jonglei Canal in the Sudan was forcibly suspended in 1984 following a series of attacks on the construction site.

Suliman 1998; Keluel-Jang 1997

1979

United States

Development/ labor dispute/ Terrorism

Yes

Employee sabotage at the Virginia Surry Nuclear Power plant led to an investigation by the FBI.

Shapiro 2004

1980s

Mozambique, Rhodesia/Zimbabwe, South Africa

Military target, Terrorism

Yes

Regular destruction of power lines from Cahora Bassa Dam during fight for independence in the region. Dam targeted by RENAMO.

Chenje 2001

1981

Iran, Iraq

Military target and tool

Yes

Iran claims to have bombed a hydroelectric facility in Kurdistan, thereby blacking out large portions of Iraq, during the Iran-Iraq War.

Gleick 1993

1980-1988

Iran, Iraq

Military tool

Yes

Iran diverts water to flood Iraqi defense positions.

Plant 1995

1986

Lesotho, South Africa

Development goal, Access to resources

Yes

Bloodless coup by Lesotho’s defense forces, with support from South Africa, lead to immediate agreement with South Africa for water from the Highlands of Lesotho, after 30 previous years of unsuccessful negotiations. There is disagreement over the degree to which water was a motivating factor for either party.

Mohamed 2001

1988

Angola, South Africa, Cuba

Military goal, Military target

Yes

Cuban and Angolan forces launch an attack on Calueque Dam via land and then air. Considerable damage inflicted on dam wall; power supply to dam cut. Water pipeline to Owamboland cut and destroyed.

Meissner 2000

1982

Israel, Lebanon, Syria

Military tool

Yes

Israel cuts off the water supply of Beirut during siege.

Wolf 1997

1982

Guatemala

Development dispute

Yes

177 civilians killed in Rio Negro over opposition to Chixoy hydroelectric dam.

Levy 2000

1984

United States

Terrorism

No

Members of the Rajneeshee religious cult contaminate a city water supply tank in The Dalles, Oregon, using Salmonella. A community outbreak of over 750 cases occurred in a county that normally reports fewer than five cases per year.

Clark and Deininger 2000

1986

North Korea, South Korea

Military tool

No

North Korea’s announcement of its plans to build the Kumgansan hydroelectric dam on a tributary of the Han River upstream of Seoul raises concerns in South Korea that the dam could be used as a tool for ecological destruction or war.

Gleick 1993

1986

Lesotho, South Africa

Military goal; Control of water resources

Yes

South Africa supports coup in Lesotho over support for ANC and anti-apartheid, and water. New government in Lesotho then quickly signs Lesotho Highlands water agreement.

American University 2000b

1990

South Africa

Development dispute, Control of water resources

No

Pro-apartheid council cuts off water to the Wesselton township of 50,000 blacks following protests over miserable sanitation and living conditions.

Gleick 1993

1990

Iraq, Syria, Turkey

Development dispute, Military tool, Political tool

No

The flow of the Euphrates is interrupted for a month as Turkey finishes construction of the Ataturk Dam, part of the Grand Anatolia Project. Syria and Iraq protest that Turkey now has a weapon of war. In mid-1990 Turkish president Turgut Ozal threatens to restrict water flow to Syria to force it to withdraw support for Kurdish rebels operating in southern Turkey.

Gleick 1993 & 1995

1991-present

Karnataka,

Tamil Nadu (India)

Development dispute, Control of water resources

Yes

Violence erupts when Karnataka rejects an Interim Order handed down by the Cauvery Waters Tribunal, set up by the Indian Supreme Court. The Tribunal was established in 1990 to settle two decades of dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu over irrigation rights to the Cauvery River.

Gleick 1993, Butts 1997, American University 2000a

1991

Iraq, Kuwait, US

Military target

Yes

During the Gulf War, Iraq destroys much of Kuwait’s desalination capacity during retreat.

Gleick 1993

1991

Iraq, Turkey, United Nations

Military tool

Yes

Discussions are held at the United Nations about using the Ataturk Dam in Turkey to cut off flows of the Euphrates to Iraq.

Gleick 1993

1991

Iraq, Kuwait, US

Military target

Yes

Baghdad’s modern water supply and sanitation system are intentionally and unintentionally damaged by Allied coalition. “Four of seven major pumping stations were destroyed, as were 31 municipal water and sewerage facilities – 20 in Baghdad, resulting in sewage pouring into the Tigris. Water purification plants were incapacitated throughout Iraq” (Arbuthnot 2000). In the first eight months of 1991, after Iraq's water infrastructure was damaged by the Persian Gulf War, the New England Journal of Medicine reported that nearly 47,000 more children than normal died in Iraq and the country's infant mortality rate doubled to 92.7 per 1,000 live births.

Gleick 1993, Arbuthnot 2000, Barrett 2003

1992

Czechoslovakia, Hungary

Political tool, Development dispute

Military maneuvers

Hungary abrogates a 1977 treaty with Czechoslovakia concerning construction of the Gabcikovo/Nagymaros project based on environmental concerns. Slovakia continues construction unilaterally, completes the dam, and diverts the Danube into a canal inside the Slovakian republic. Massive public protest and movement of military to the border ensue; issue taken to the International Court of Justice.

Gleick 1993

1992

Bosnia, Bosnian Serbs

Military tool

Yes

The Serbian siege of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, includes a cutoff of all electrical power and the water feeding the city from the surrounding mountains. The lack of power cuts the two main pumping stations inside the city despite pledges from Serbian nationalist leaders to United Nations officials that they would not use their control of Sarajevo's utilities as a weapon. Bosnian Serbs take control of water valves regulating flow from wells that provide more than 80 percent of water to Sarajevo; reduced water flow to city is used to ‘smoke out’ Bosnians.

Burns 1992, Husarska 1995

1993-present

Iraq

Military tool

No

To quell opposition to his government, Saddam Hussein reportedly poisons and drains the water supplies of southern Shiite Muslims, the Ma'dan. The marshes of southern Iraq are intentionally targeted. The European Parliament and UN Human Rights Commission deplore use of water as weapon in region.

Gleick 1993, American University 2000c, National Geographic News 2001

1993

Yugoslavia

Military target and tool

Yes

Peruca Dam intentionally destroyed during war.

Gleick 1993

1995

Ecuador, Peru

Military and political tool

Yes

Armed skirmishes arise in part because of disagreement over the control of the headwaters of Cenepa River. Wolf argues that this is primarily a border dispute simply coinciding with location of a water resource.

Samson & Charrier 1997, Wolf 1997

1997

Singapore, Malaysia

Political tool

No

Malaysia supplies about half of Singapore’s water and in 1997 threatened to cut off that supply in retribution for criticisms by Singapore of policy in Malaysia.

Zachary 1997

1998

Tajikistan

Terrorism, Political tool

Potential

On November 6, a guerrilla commander threatened to blow up a dam on the Kairakkhum channel if political demands are not met. Col. Makhmud Khudoberdyev made the threat, reported by the ITAR-Tass News Agency.

WRR 1998

1998

Angola

Military and political tool

Yes

In September 1998, fierce fighting between UNITA and Angolan government forces broke out at Gove Dam on the Kunene River for control of the installation.

Meissner 2001

1998/1994

United States

Cyber-terrorism

No

The Washington Post reports a 12-year old computer hacker broke into the SCADA computer system that runs Arizona’s Roosevelt Dam, giving him complete control of the dam’s massive floodgates. The cities of Mesa, Tempe, and Phoenix, Arizona are downstream of this dam. No damage was done. This report turns out to be incorrect. A hacker did break into the computers of an Arizona water facility, the Salt River Project in the Phoenix area. But he was 27, not 12, and the incident occurred in 1994, not 1998. And while clearly trespassing in critical areas, the hacker never could have had control of any dams--leading investigators to conclude that no lives or property were ever threatened.

Gellman 2002, Lemos 2002

1998

Democratic Republic of Congo

Military target, Terrorism

Yes

Attacks on Inga Dam during efforts to topple President Kabila. Disruption of electricity supplies from Inga Dam and water supplies to Kinshasa

Chenje 2001, Human Rights Watch 1998

1998 to 2000

Eritrea and Ethiopia

Military target

Yes

Water pumping plants and pipelines in the border town of Adi Quala were destroyed during the civil war between Eritrea and Ethiopia.

ICRC 2003

1999

Lusaka, Zambia

Terrorism, Political tool

Yes

Bomb blast destroyed the main water pipeline, cutting off water for the city of Lusaka, population 3 million.

FTGWR 1999

1999

Yugoslavia

Military target

Yes

Belgrade reported that NATO planes had targeted a hydroelectric plant during the Kosovo campaign.

Reuters 1999a

1999

Bangladesh

Development dispute, Political tool

Yes

50 hurt during strikes called to protest power and water shortages. Protest led by former Prime Minister Begum Khaleda Zia over deterioration of public services and in law and order.

Ahmed 1999

1999

Yugoslavia

Military target

Yes

NATO targets utilities and shuts down water supplies in Belgrade. NATO bombs bridges on Danube, disrupting navigation.

Reuters 1999b

1999

Yugoslavia

Political tool

Yes

Yugoslavia refuses to clear war debris on Danube (downed bridges) unless financial aid for reconstruction is provided; European countries on Danube fear flooding due to winter ice dams will result. Diplomats decry environmental blackmail.

Simons 1999

1999

Kosovo

Political tool

Yes

Serbian engineers shut down water system in Pristina prior to occupation by NATO.

Reuters 1999c

1999

Angola

Terrorism, Political tool

Yes

100 bodies were found in four drinking water wells in central Angola.

International Herald Tribune 1999

1999

Puerto Rico, U.S.

Political tool

No

Protesters blocked water intake to Roosevelt Roads Navy Base in opposition to U.S. military presence and Navy’s use of the Blanco River, following chronic water shortages in neighboring towns.

New York Times 1999

1999

China

Development Dispute

Yes

Around Chinese New Years, farmers from Hebei and Henan Provinces fought over limited water resources. Heavy weapons, including mortars and bombs, were used and nearly 100 villagers were injured. Houses and facilities were damaged and the total loss reached one million $US. Parties involved: Huanglongkou Village, Shexian County, Hebei Province and Gucheng Village, Linzhou City, Henan Province

China Water Resources Daily 2002

1999

East Timor

Military tool, Political tool, Terrorism

Yes

Militia opposing East Timor independence kill pro-independence supporters and throw bodies in water well.

BBC 1999

1999

Kosovo

Terrorism, Political tool

Yes

Contamination of water supplies/wells by Serbs disposing of bodies of Kosovar Albanians in local wells.

CNN 1999

1999 to 2000

Namibia, Botswana, Zambia

Military goal: Control of water resources

No

Sedudu/Kasikili Island, in the Zambezi/Chobe River. Dispute over border and access to water. Presented to the International Court of Justice

ICJ 1999

2000

Ethiopia

Development dispute

Yes

One man stabbed to death during fight over clean water during famine in Ethiopia

Sandrasagra 2000

2000

Central Asia: Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan

Political tool

No

Kyrgyzstan cuts off water to Kazakhstan until coal is delivered; Uzbekistan cuts off water to Kazakhstan for non-payment of debt.

Pannier 2000

2000

Hazarajat, Afghanistan

Development dispute

Yes

Violent conflicts broke out over water resources in the villages Burna Legan and Taina Legan, and in other parts of the region, as drought depleted local resources.

Cooperation Center for Afghanistan 2000

2000

India: Gujarat

Development dispute

Yes

Water riots reported in some areas of Gujarat to protest against authority’s failure to arrange adequate supply of tanker water. Police are reported to have shot into a crowd at Falla village near Jamnagar, resulting in the death of three and injuries to 20 following protests against the diversion of water from the Kankavati dam to Jamnagar town.

FTGWR 2000

2000

Kenya

Development dispute

Yes

A clash between villagers and thirsty monkeys left eight apes dead and ten villagers wounded. The duel started after water tankers brought water to a drought-stricken area and monkeys desperate for water attacked the villagers.

BBC 2000, Okoko 2000

2000

Australia

Cyber-terrorism (?)

No

In Queensland, Australia, on April 23^rd, 2000, police arrested a man for using a computer and radio transmitter to take control of the Maroochy Shire wastewater system and release sewage into parks, rivers, and property. This is one of the first documented cases of cyber-terrorism (or perhaps just electronic vandalism?) in the water industry.

Gellman 2002

2000

China

Development dispute

Yes

Civil unrest erupted over use and allocation of water from Baiyangdian Lake – the largest natural lake in northern China. Several people died in riots by villagers in July 2000 in Shandong after officials cut off water supplies. In August 2000, six died when officials in the southern province of Guangdong blew up a water channel to prevent a neighboring county from diverting water.

Pottinger 2000

2001

Israel, Palestine

Terrorism, Control of water resources

Palestinians destroy water supply pipelines to West Bank settlement of Yitzhar and to Kibbutz Kisufim. Agbat Jabar refugee camp near Jericho disconnected from its water supply after Palestinians looted and damaged local water pumps. Palestinians accuse Israel of destroying a water cistern, blocking water tanker deliveries, and attacking materials for a wastewater treatment project.

Israel Line 2001a,b; ENS 2001a.

2001

Pakistan

Development dispute, Terrorism

Yes

Civil unrest over severe water shortages caused by the long-term drought. Protests began in March and April and continued into summer. Riots, four bombs in Karachi (June 13), one death, 12 injuries, 30 arrests. Ethnic conflicts as some groups “accuse the government of favoring the populous Punjab province [over Sindh province] in water distribution.”

Nadeem 2001, Soloman 2001

2001

Macedonia

Terrorism,

Control of water resources

Yes

Water flow to Kumanovo (population 100,000) cut off for 12 days in conflict between ethnic Albanians and Macedonian forces. Valves of Glaznja and Lipkovo Lakes damaged.

AFP 2001, Macedonia Information Agency 2001

2001

China

Development dispute

Yes

In an act to protest destruction of fisheries from uncontrolled water pollution, fishermen in northern Jiaxing City, Zhejiang Province, dammed the canal that carries 90 million tons of industrial wastewater per year for 23 days. The wastewater discharge into the neighboring Shengze Town, Jiangsu Province, killed fish, and threatened people's health.

China Ministry of Water Resources 2001.

2001

Philippines

Terrorism,

Political tool

No

Philippine authorities shut off water to six remote southern villages yesterday after residents complained of a foul smell from their taps, raising fears Muslim guerrillas had contaminated the supplies. Abu Sayyaf guerrillas, accused of links with Saudi-born militant Osami bin Laden, had threatened to poison the water supply in the mainly Christian town of Isabela on Basilan island if the military did not stop an offensive against them.

World Environment News 2001

2001

Afghanistan

Military target

Yes

U.S. forces bombed the hydroelectric facility at Kajaki Dam in Helmand province of Afghanistan, cutting off electricity for the city of Kandahar. The dam itself was apparently not targeted.

BBC 2001, Parry 2001

2002

Nepal

Terrorism, Political Tool

Yes

The Khumbuwan Liberation Front (KLF) blew up a hydroelectric powerhouse of 250 kilowatts in Bhojpur District January 26. The power supply to Bhojpur and adjoining areas was cut off. Estimated repair time was 6 months; repair costs were estimated at 10 million Rs. By June 2002, Maoist rebels had destroyed more than seven micro-hydro projects as well as an intake of a drinking water project and pipelines supplying water to Khalanga in western Nepal.

Kathmandu Post 2002; FTGWR 2002a

2002

Rome, Italy

Terrorism

No

Italian police arrest four Moroccans allegedly planning to contaminate the water supply system in Rome with a cyanide-based chemical, targeting buildings that included the United States embassy. Ties to Al-Queda were suggested.

BBC 2002

2002

Kashmir, India

Development dispute

Yes

Two people were killed and 25 others injured in Kashmir when police fired at a group of villagers clashing over water sharing. The incident took place in Garend village in a dispute over sharing water from an irrigation stream.

The Japan Times 2002

2002

United States

Terrorism

No

Among the items seized during the arrest of a Lebanese national who moved to the US and became an Imam at a Islamist mosque in Seattle were papers by London-based al-Qaida recruiter including "instructions on poisoning water sources." The FBI issued a bulletin to computer security experts around the country indicating that al-Qaida terrorists may have been studying American dams and water-supply systems in preparation for new attacks. "U.S. law enforcement and intelligence agencies have received indications that al-Qaida members have sought information on Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems available on multiple SCADA-related Web sites," reads the bulletin, according to SecurityFocus. "They specifically sought information on water supply and wastewater management practices in the U.S. and abroad."

McDonnell and Meyer 2002, MSNBC 2002

2002

Colombia

Terrorism

Yes

Colombian rebels in January damaged a gate valve in the dam that supplies most of Bogota’s drinking water. Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), detonated an explosive device planted on a German-made gate valve located inside a tunnel in the Chingaza Dam, which provides most of the capital city’s water.

Waterweek 2002

2002

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, India

Development dispute

Yes

Continuing violence over the allocation of the Cauvery River between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Riots, property destruction, more than 30 injuries, arrests through September and October.

The Hindu 2002a,b, The Times of India 2002a.

2002

United States

Terrorism

No

Earth Liberation Front threatens the water supply for the town of Winter Park. Previously, this group claimed responsibility for the destruction of a ski lodge in Vail, Colorado that threatened lynx habitat.

Crecente 2002, Associated Press 2002

2003-2004

Sudan

Political and Military Tool, Target

Yes

The ongoing civil war in the Sudan has included violence against water resources. In 2003, villagers from around Tina said that bombings had destroyed water wells. In Khasan Basao they alleged that water wells were poisoned. In 2004, wells in Darfur were intentionally contaminated as part of a strategy of harassment against displaced populations.

Toronto Daily 2004, Reuters Foundation 2004

2003

United States

Terrorism

No

Al-Qaida threatens US water systems via call to Saudi Arabian magazine. Al-Qaida does not “rule out…the poisoning of drinking water in American and Western cities.”

Associated Press 2003a, Waterman 2003, NewsMax 2003, US Water News 2003

2003

United States

Terrorism

Yes

Four incendiary devices were found in the pumping station of a Michigan water-bottling plant. The Earth Liberation Front (ELF) claimed responsibility, accusing Ice Mountain Water Company of “stealing” water for profit. Ice Mountain is a subsidiary of Nestle Waters.

Associated Press 2003b

2003

Colombia

Terrorism, development dispute

Yes

A bomb blast at the Cali Drinking Water Treatment Plant killed 3 workers May 8^th. The workers were members of a trade union involved in intense negotiations over privatization of the water system.

PSI 2003

2003

Iraq, United States, Others

Military Target

Yes

During the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, water systems were reportedly damaged or destroyed by different parties, and major dams were military objectives of the U.S. forces. Damage directly attributable to the war includes vast segments of the water distribution system and the Baghdad water system, damaged by a missile.

UNICEF 2003, ARC 2003

2003

Iraq

Terrorism

Yes

Sabotage/bombing of main water pipeline in Baghdad. The sabotage of the water pipeline was the first such strike against Baghdad's water system, city water engineers said. It happened around 7 in the morning, when a blue Volkswagen Passat stopped on an overpass near the Nidaa mosque and an explosive was fired at the six-foot-wide water main in the northern part of Baghdad, said Hayder Muhammad, the chief engineer for the city's water treatment plants.

Tierney and Worth 2003

2004

Mexico

Development dispute

Yes

Two Mexican farmers argued for years over water rights to a small spring used to irrigate a small corn plot near the town of Pihuamo. In March, these farmers shot each other dead.

The Guardian 2004

2004

Pakistan

Terrorism

Yes

In military action aimed at Islamic terrorists, including Al Qaeda and the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan, homes, schools, and water wells were damaged and destroyed.

Reuters 2004a

2004

India, Kashmir

Terrorism

Yes

Twelve Indian security forces were killed by an IED planted in an underground water pipe during “counter-insurgency operation in Khanabal area in Anantnag district.”

TNN 2004

2004

India

Development dispute

Yes

Four people were killed in October and more than 30 injured in November in ongoing protests by farmers over allocations of water from the Indira Ghandi Irrigation Canal in Sriganganagar district, which borders Pakistan. A curfew was imposed in the towns of Gharsana, Raola and Anoopgarh.

Indo-Asian News Service 200

2004

Somalia

Development dispute

Yes

At least 50 people killed and many more injured in clashes two divisions of the same clan on Wednesday, in the village of Gelinsor and nearby villages along the Ethiopian border. The fighting reportedly began over access to pastoral land and water wells.

BBC 2004